The Development of Early Modern Period Domes in Various Cultures

In the early modern period, domes became a staple architectural feature in various cultures, showcasing the ingenuity and creativity of builders from different parts of the world.

The development of early modern period domes was influenced by the use of new construction techniques and materials, such as the invention of the arch and the introduction of concrete.

In Islamic architecture, the use of domes became a hallmark of mosques and mausoleums, as seen in the famous Sultantepe Mosque in Turkey, which features a large central dome.

The use of domes in European architecture was also influenced by the Byzantine Empire, where domes were used to top churches and other buildings, such as the Hagia Sophia in Istanbul.

Domes were not only used for religious buildings, but also for secular structures, like the Taj Mahal in India, which features a large marble dome that symbolizes the love and devotion of the Mughal emperor who built it.

The early modern period saw a significant evolution in dome construction, with the introduction of new materials and techniques. The first dome ever raised in England was the crossing dome of St. Paul's Cathedral, designed by Sir Christopher Wren.

The dome of St. Paul's Cathedral was three layers: an inner dome with an oculus, a decorative outer wood dome covered in lead roofing, and a structural brick cone in between. It rose 365 feet to the cross at its summit.

In the early sixteenth century, the lantern of the Italian dome spread to Germany, gradually adopting the bulbous cupola from the Netherlands.

The Persian architectural style is known for its stunning domes that have been evolving for centuries. These structures have been built with various materials, including un-fired mud bricks, local stone, and mortar.

The earliest known example of squinches, a characteristic of Persian domes, can be found in the ruins of the Palace of Ardashir and Ghal’eh Dokhtar in Fars Province, Iran, dating back to the Sasanian Empire (224–240).

Persian domes are characterized by their transition tiers, such as squinches, spandrels, or brackets, which support the circular dome. The inner shells of these domes can be semi-circular, semi-elliptical, pointed, or saucer-shaped.

The Bulbous Parthian dome, which can be found in the Arch of Septimius Severus in Rome, is a notable example of Persian dome architecture. This style of dome became popular in the period of the Sasanian Empire.

In the Early Islamic period, buildings such as the tomb of Muhammed b. Musa and the Great Mosque of Qom, showed characteristics of Sasanian dome form. The Samanid Mausoleum in Transoxiana is the first building to have a regular octagon base squinch, which became a regular practice of dome building.

The Safavid dynasty saw the development of bulbous profile domes, which became thinner and featured complex vegetal patterns and colored glazed tiles. The Shah Mosque and the Mādar-e Šāh madrasa are notable examples of this style.

The Roman and Byzantine periods were a time of great innovation in dome architecture. During this time, rounded arches, vaults, and dome structures became the norm, and the use of concrete and bricks allowed for the construction of large-scale domes.

The Romans were masters of building with concrete and bricks, which enabled them to create domes of high strength and durability. They used these materials to build domes for baths, villas, palaces, and tombs.

In the Early Imperial Period, domes were used over hot baths to maintain the heat of the environment. The first Roman large dome dates back to the age of Augustus, with a span of 21.5 meters.

The use of domes in buildings increased significantly under Emperor Nero and the Flavians in the 1st century AD to 2nd century AD. During this time, buildings like the Domus Transitoria and Domus Aurea were constructed.

The Pantheon in Rome is one of the most famous Roman monuments, featuring the largest dome with a span of 43.4 meters. Completed by Emperor Hadrian as part of the Baths of Agrippa, it was the first time a dome had coffering's in its interior, making it more decorative and lighter in weight.

The Byzantine period saw a continuation of the dome's evolution, with buildings like Hosios Loukas and Kalenderhane Mosque featuring more geometrically complicated and higher domes.

During the Italian Renaissance, architects like Filippo Brunelleschi, Donato Bramante, and Michelangelo revolutionized dome construction with new methods and mathematics.

The dome of Florence Cathedral, built by Brunelleschi between 1420 and 1436, is still the largest masonry-built dome in the world, measuring 42 to 45 meters in diameter.

Brunelleschi's use of a double dome, with inner and outer shells, became a common technique in dome construction during this period.

The dome of St. Peter's Basilica, designed by Michelangelo, was built with 16 ribs and an inner diameter of 42.7 meters.

Michelangelo's design for the dome of St. Peter's Basilica was influenced by the earlier work of Filippo Brunelleschi on the dome of Florence Cathedral.

The dome of St. Peter's Basilica remains the tallest in the world, with an external height from the ground to the top of the cross of 136.57 meters.

The Italian Renaissance saw a shift from Gothic ribbed vaults to a combination of dome and barrel vaults, which became a characteristic structural form of large Renaissance churches.

Filippo Brunelleschi's domes at San Lorenzo and the Pazzi Chapel established the dome as a key element of Renaissance architecture.

The Renaissance enthusiasm for geometry and the circle as geometry's supreme form is evident in Brunelleschi's plan for the dome of the Pazzi Chapel in Florence's Basilica of Santa Croce.

De re aedificatoria, written by Leon Battista Alberti around 1452, recommends vaults with coffering for churches, as in the Pantheon.

The Villa Capra, built by Andrea Palladio from 1565 to 1569, features a highly symmetrical square plan centered on a circular room covered by a dome.

Palladio's two domed churches in Venice, San Giorgio Maggiore and Il Redentore, were built in the late 16th century and demonstrate the spread of the Renaissance-style dome outside of Italy.

Russian domes are a unique feature of Russian architecture, characterized by their bulbous shape and tapering to a point, resembling an onion.

These domes are often larger in diameter than the drum they sit on, and their height usually exceeds their width. They are commonly found in Russian Orthodox churches, such as the famous Saint Basil's Cathedral in Moscow.

The onion dome became a predominant form in traditional Russian architecture by the Early Modern era, replacing the earlier Byzantine style domes found in the earliest stone churches in Russia. The earliest preserved Russian domes of this type date from the 16th century.

Onion domes were initially used only in wooden churches, but were later introduced into stone architecture, where their carcasses were made of either wood or metal on top of masonry drums. This allowed for greater flexibility in design and construction.

The Russian domes are often gilded or brightly painted, with some examples featuring a dangerous technique of chemical gilding using mercury, as seen in the giant dome of Saint Isaac's Cathedral.

The Renaissance octagonal dome of Filippo Brunelleschi over the Florence Cathedral is an iconic example of a domical vault.

These domes maintain a polygonal shape in their horizontal cross section, and Brunelleschi's design was a groundbreaking achievement in engineering and architecture.

The octagonal shape is a popular choice for domical vaults, and Thomas Jefferson even installed an octagonal dome above the West front of his plantation house, Monticello.

The geometry of these designs is a key element, and the octagon shape is often used to great effect.

The intersection of the ribs in these domes characteristically occurs off-center, forming an empty polygonal space in the center, as seen in the Great Mosque of Córdoba's early examples of ribbed vaults.

Saucer domes are a type of architectural feature that gained popularity from the 18th century onwards.

These domes are characterized by their low pitch and shallow shape, often resembling a saucer when viewed from below. The saucer dome is a type of dome that is described geometrically as having a circular base and a segmental section.

In many cases, saucer domes are contained within the space between the ceiling and attic, making them invisible externally. The dome itself may be decorated internally with ornate plaster-work or frescoes.

Saucer domes are often seen in Byzantine churches, Ottoman mosques, and many mosques in India, Pakistan, Iran, and Afghanistan.

The domes of Ukraine have a rich history. The earliest discovered domed structures were found in Mezhirich, Ukraine, dating back to 15,000 to 20,000 years ago.

These ancient dwellings were made of Mammoth tusks and bones. In modern times, indigenous peoples in Ukraine, like the Himba people of Namibia, construct similar structures using local materials.

The Saint Sophia Cathedral and Dormition Cathedral in Ukraine were remodeled to the helmet-shaped baroque style by Ivan Mazepa in the early 18th century. Mazepa also paid for gilding of the domes and constructed an octagonal western bay with a baroque dome in 1672.

Five helmet-shaped domes were built over Boris and Gleb Cathedral in Chernihiv, but they were removed in the 20th century by the Soviet government.

In the Middle East, the earliest domes were built with mud-brick.

These early domes eventually transitioned to baked brick and stone, showcasing the versatility of materials in ancient architecture.

Domes of wood allowed for wide spans due to their light and flexible nature, and were often used for domed churches by the 7th century.

Wooden domes were protected from the weather by roofing, such as copper or lead sheeting, which helped extend their lifespan.

Roman concrete was made with an aggregate of stone and a powerful mortar, but its use varied over the centuries.

By the sixth century, bricks with large amounts of mortar became the principle vaulting materials, a testament to the evolution of building techniques.

Brick domes were the favored choice for large-space monumental coverings until the Industrial Age, likely due to their convenience and dependability.

In the Middle East and Central Asia, domes were sometimes covered with ceramic tiles to protect against rain and snow, adding an extra layer of durability.

The use of iron and steel beams, steel cables, and pre-stressed concrete in modern domes eliminated the need for external buttressing, allowing for thinner and more efficient structures.

Domes have been a staple of architecture for centuries, and their design has evolved over time.

The Pantheon in Rome, built in 126 AD, is a great example of a traditional dome design.

One type of dome is the hemispherical dome, characterized by its curved shape and symmetrical design. The Pantheon's dome is a prime example of this style.

The Pantheon's dome is made of concrete and is approximately 43 meters in diameter.

The first baroque oval dome was actually erected by Vignola for a chapel in Rome, Sant'Andrea in Via Flaminia, in 1552. It was commissioned by Julius III.

The largest oval dome was built in the basilica of Vicoforte by Francesco Gallo. It's one of the most complex ever made.

Oval domes were used in ancient times, with examples dating back to around 4000 B.C. in Asia Minor. They were used in corbelled stone huts as rounded but geometrically undefined coverings.

The Romans didn't typically build oval domes, but there's a possible example in the Roman foundations of the oval plan Church of St. Gereon in Cologne.

Compound domes are a type of dome that's supported by pendentives, which are triangular spaces that help distribute the weight evenly.

These pendentives can be used to support a smaller diameter dome above them, as seen in the Hagia Sophia, or a drum and dome, which is a common design in many Renaissance and post-Renaissance structures.

The compound dome design allows for greater height, making it a popular choice for buildings that need to be tall but also visually striking.

This design can be seen in many iconic buildings around the world, and it's a testament to the ingenuity of architects who have used this design to create structures that are both functional and beautiful.

The Pantheon in Rome has been a source of inspiration for many influential domes in later architecture. Its design has been emulated and admired for centuries.

The Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem is another iconic dome that has had a significant impact on architectural design. Its unique blend of Byzantine and Islamic styles has influenced domes built in the Western world.

Domes that have been disproportionately influential in Western architecture include those of St. Peter's Basilica in Rome and Jules Hardouin-Mansart's dome at Les Invalides in Paris. These structures showcase the power and grandeur of domes in monumental architecture.

The dome of St. Paul's Cathedral in London was the inspiration for the United States Capitol in Washington, which in turn inspired domes of most of the US state capitols. This chain of influence highlights the far-reaching impact of architectural designs.

The modern period saw a significant evolution in dome construction, thanks to advancements in materials and technology. The introduction of cast iron led to the construction of the United States Capitol building's dome, which was built from 1855 to 1866.

The use of cast iron also enabled the creation of the Old St. Louis County Courthouse's dome. The industrial revolution brought about mass production, reducing costs and enhancing material quality. This led to the widespread use of domes in various buildings, including parliaments, capitol buildings, gasometers, observatories, libraries, and churches.

Geodesic domes were invented after World War I and popularized by Buckminster Fuller, and were used in radar enclosures, greenhouses, housing, and weather stations. The Eden Project in the UK is a notable example of this construction.

The 20th century was a transformative time for dome design, with innovative materials and techniques emerging that would shape the future of modern domes. One notable example is the Space Needle in Seattle, built for the 1962 World's Fair, which stood at 605 feet tall and featured a distinctive saucer-shaped design.

The Space Needle's design was influenced by the geodesic dome concept developed by Buckminster Fuller, which emphasized efficiency and structural integrity. The geodesic dome's unique shape allowed for maximum strength while minimizing the use of materials.

The 20th century also saw the rise of iconic domes like the United States Capitol Building's dome, completed in 1863, but its design was influenced by the Renaissance-era St. Peter's Basilica in Rome. The Capitol Building's dome was designed by architect Thomas U. Walter and took 6 years to complete.

The United States Capitol Building's dome was made of cast iron and weighed over 8.9 million pounds. The dome's design was a significant departure from traditional building styles, reflecting the country's growing confidence and ambition.

Modern architecture has seen a significant evolution in dome design, thanks to advancements in materials and technology. The introduction of new materials during the industrial revolution led to the construction of larger and more complex domes.

The use of iron ribs in dome construction became more prevalent, allowing for the creation of massive domes like the one at the Royal Albert Hall in London, which spans 66.9m by 56.5m. This was a significant improvement over earlier designs.

Domes are no longer just limited to monumental buildings; they're also used in functional structures like gasometers, observatories, and libraries. The industrial revolution made it possible to mass-produce materials, reducing costs and increasing the availability of dome construction.

The 20th century saw the introduction of thin concrete shells, which enabled the creation of more complex and intricate dome designs. The Cathedral of St. John the Divine in New York City is a prime example of this, featuring a modern shell construction in reinforced concrete.

The use of geodesic domes has also become more widespread, particularly in applications like radar enclosures, greenhouses, and weather stations. The Eden Project in the UK is a notable example of this type of construction.

The invention of nylon led to the development of tensile membrane structures, which have been used in buildings like the Millennium Dome in the UK and the Georgia Dome.

The elements of early modern period domes were a crucial aspect of their design and construction.

The use of stone was a common choice for these structures, as seen in the Pantheon's Roman concrete and travertine stone.

The Pantheon's oculus, a circular opening at the top of the dome, allowed natural light to illuminate the interior.

Dome architects often employed a system of arches to distribute the weight of the structure evenly.

The Pantheon's dome was 43.4 meters in diameter and 43.4 meters high, a perfect hemisphere.

The use of a keystone in the Pantheon's arches helped to distribute the weight and stress of the structure.

The design of the dome was often influenced by the available materials and technology of the time.

The evolution of dome architecture is a testament to human ingenuity and creativity.

Dome structures have been around since the times of Mesopotamia and have evolved over the centuries, with different cultures contributing to their development.

In the Early Islamic period, buildings like the Tomb of Muhammed b. Musa and the Great Mosque of Qom showed characteristics of Sasanian dome form.

Persian domes, in particular, are characterized by their transition tiers, which support the circular dome.

The Samanid Mausoleum in Transoxiana is the first building to have a regular octagon base squinch, a feature that became a regular practice of dome building.

In Byzantine period, domes became more geometrically complicated, higher in height, lighter in weight, more stable, and more decorated.

Hagia Sophia, built during this time, has a central dome that is about 750 mm thick, with a span of 32 meters wide and 40 radial ribs.

The use of new materials during the Industrial Revolution led to the construction of larger and more complex domes.

Kazan Cathedral, for example, features one of the earliest wrought iron domes, while the Royal Albert Hall in London has an elliptical dome with a span of 66.9m by 56.5m.

In the 20th century, domes were constructed with thin concrete shells, as seen in the Cathedral of St. John the Divine in New York City.

The Pantheon in Rome has been a source of inspiration for many later architectural designs, its dome influencing the development of Western architecture.

One of the most famous domes in the world, the Pantheon's design has been emulated and adapted in various forms. The Pantheon's dome has had a lasting impact on the way architects design domes.

The Pantheon's influence can be seen in the design of St. Peter's Basilica in Rome, which features a massive dome that has become an iconic symbol of the city.

St. Peter's Basilica's dome was a major departure from traditional design and paved the way for the development of more complex and larger domes.

The Taj Mahal, built between 1632 and 1653, is considered the finest example of Mughal architecture and features a large marble dome.

Domes have been constructed using local materials by cultures from pre-history to modern times, with early examples including four small dwellings made of Mammoth tusks and bones discovered in Ukraine, dating back to 19,280 – 11,700 BC.

The historical development from simple domes to more sophisticated ones is not well documented, but it's believed that the dome was known to early Mesopotamia, which may explain its existence in both China and the West in the first millennium BC.

The first dome ever raised in England was the crossing dome of St. Paul's Cathedral, built between 1677 and 1708, which was designed by Sir Christopher Wren and stood 365 feet tall.

The construction of domes in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries relied primarily on empirical techniques and oral traditions rather than architectural treatises, which avoided practical details.

The word "dome" has a rich history, and its meaning has evolved over time. The English word "dome" ultimately derives from the ancient Greek and Latin domus ("house").

In the past, the word "dome" was used to describe a revered house, such as a Domus Dei, or "House of God". This is reflected in the uses of the Italian word duomo.

The German/Icelandic/Danish word dom ("cathedral") is also related to the concept of a revered house. The English word "dome" was used to describe a "Town-House, Guild-Hall, State-House, and Meeting-House in a city" as late as 1656.

The French word dosme came to acquire the meaning of a cupola vault by 1660. This French definition gradually became the standard usage of the English word "dome" in the eighteenth century.

The earliest discovered domed structures date back to 15,000 to 20,000 years ago, found in Mezhirich, Ukraine, made of Mammoth tusks and bones.

These early domes were likely used as dwellings, and their discovery suggests that the concept of building domes was present in prehistoric times.

The use of domes in ancient times is also evident in the construction of the Apache wigwam, which was made using arched branches or poles covered with grass or hides.

The Efe Pygmies of central Africa construct similar structures, using mango leaves as shingles, showing that the idea of building domes was not unique to any one culture.

The Igloo, a shelter built from blocks of compact snow, was used by the Inuit people, and similar structures were built by the Himba people of Namibia using wattle and daub.

Corbelled stone domes have been found from the Neolithic period in the ancient Near East, and in the Middle East to Western Europe from antiquity, suggesting that the use of domes was widespread in ancient times.

In the early history of domes, the creation of relatively simple dome-like structures has been documented among various indigenous peoples around the world, showing that the concept of building domes was present in many cultures.

The earliest discovered may be four small dwellings made of Mammoth tusks and bones, which date from 19,280 – 11,700 BC.